Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) "Forever Chemicals": Comprehensive Analysis of Health Risks, Environmental Contamination, Treatment Technologies, and Regulatory Landscape in Indonesia and Globally

Reading Time: 35 minutes | Exchange Rate: 1 USD = IDR 16,600 (October 5, 2025)

Executive Summary

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) represent one of the most significant environmental and public health challenges of the 21st century, earning the designation "forever chemicals" due to their extraordinary persistence and bioaccumulation properties. PFAS comprise a family of over 12,000 synthetic chemical compounds characterized by strong carbon-fluorine bonds, the strongest bonds in organic chemistry, rendering them virtually indestructible under normal environmental conditions. These chemicals have been manufactured since the 1940s and widely incorporated into consumer products, industrial processes, firefighting foams, food packaging, textiles, and countless applications.

The global PFAS contamination crisis has reached alarming proportions. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency's Fifth Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule identified 9,552 sites with detectable PFAS contamination as of August 2025, with at least 200 million Americans exposed through contaminated drinking water supplies^[1]. Studies demonstrate PFAS presence in blood serum of 97-99% of the US population, evidencing widespread human exposure regardless of geographic location or demographic factors. The contamination extends globally, with PFAS detected in Arctic wildlife, remote mountain lakes, rainfall, and breast milk samples across all continents.

Indonesia faces significant PFAS challenges despite limited monitoring and regulation. Research by Nexus3 Foundation and IPEN revealed 62% of consumer products tested in Indonesia contained PFAS levels exceeding proposed EU safety limits, with 100% of microwave popcorn bags testing positive for PFAS contamination^[3]. Studies identified PFAS in Jakarta Bay sediments, breast milk samples from Jakarta and Purwakarta, and consumer products including textiles, footwear, and food packaging manufactured in Indonesia.

Treatment technologies for PFAS removal from drinking water have advanced significantly, with three primary approaches demonstrating effectiveness: Granular Activated Carbon filtration, Ion Exchange resins, and Reverse Osmosis/Nanofiltration membranes^[4]. This article examines PFAS from chemical properties, health risks, environmental contamination, treatment technologies, regulatory frameworks, and Indonesia-specific considerations, providing stakeholders comprehensive analysis supporting risk assessment and remediation strategies.

What Are PFAS and Why Are They Called "Forever Chemicals"?

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances encompass a family of over 12,000 synthetic chemical compounds sharing a common structural feature: a carbon chain where hydrogen atoms are partially or fully replaced by fluorine atoms. The carbon-fluorine bond represents the strongest single bond in organic chemistry with bond dissociation energy approximately 116 kcal/mol, substantially exceeding carbon-hydrogen (99 kcal/mol) or carbon-carbon (83 kcal/mol) bonds. This exceptional bond strength combined with the high electronegativity of fluorine creates molecules resistant to thermal, chemical, and biological degradation under environmental conditions.

The "forever chemical" designation accurately reflects PFAS environmental persistence. The C-F bond strength prevents degradation by typical environmental processes including photolysis (sunlight-induced breakdown), hydrolysis (water-induced breakdown), and biodegradation (microbial breakdown). Laboratory studies demonstrate PFOA and PFOS persistence exceeding decades to centuries under environmental conditions. This persistence enables global atmospheric and oceanic transport, explaining PFAS detection in Arctic wildlife, Antarctic ice, and remote mountain lakes thousands of kilometers from emission sources.

PFAS applications exploit unique properties making them commercially valuable across numerous industries. Non-stick coatings for cookware utilize PFAS fluoropolymers creating surfaces from which food easily releases. Stain-resistant and water-repellent treatments for textiles, carpets, and upholstery employ PFAS to prevent liquid penetration. Food packaging including greaseproof paper, pizza boxes, and microwave popcorn bags incorporates PFAS preventing oil and grease penetration. Firefighting foams, particularly aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), rely on PFAS surfactant properties to suppress petroleum fires at airports, military bases, and industrial facilities.

Health Dangers of PFAS Exposure

Extensive scientific research encompassing epidemiological studies, animal toxicology experiments, and mechanistic investigations establishes causal relationships between PFAS exposure and multiple adverse health outcomes^[2]. The US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, National Toxicology Program, and international health agencies have conducted comprehensive toxicological assessments documenting PFAS health hazards. Evidence strength varies by specific PFAS compound and health endpoint, with strongest evidence for PFOA and PFOS due to decades of research focus.

Cancer represents among the most concerning PFAS-associated health outcomes. The International Agency for Research on Cancer classified PFOA as "carcinogenic to humans" based on limited human evidence and sufficient animal evidence. Epidemiological studies of communities exposed to elevated PFOA concentrations identified statistically significant associations between PFOA exposure and kidney cancer and testicular cancer. A 2022 University of Southern California study found elevated serum PFOS concentrations associated with 4.5-fold increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer), representing the first human evidence linking PFAS to liver cancer.

Immunotoxicity constitutes a well-established PFAS health effect with significant public health implications. The National Toxicology Program's 2016 monograph concluded with "high confidence" that PFOA and PFOS cause immunosuppression in humans based on vaccine response studies^[2]. Multiple epidemiological investigations demonstrate reduced antibody production following childhood vaccinations in children with elevated PFAS exposure, potentially compromising vaccine effectiveness for diphtheria, tetanus, rubella, and influenza.

How to Remove PFAS from Drinking Water

Effective treatment technologies for PFAS removal from drinking water and contaminated groundwater have been identified through extensive research and full-scale implementation. The US EPA designates three approaches as Best Available Technologies for PFAS drinking water treatment: granular activated carbon adsorption, ion exchange resins, and high-pressure membranes including reverse osmosis and nanofiltration^[4]. Technology selection depends on water quality characteristics, PFAS contamination profile, treatment objectives, and economic constraints.

Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) filtration represents the most widely implemented PFAS treatment technology. GAC consists of porous carbonaceous material with surface area exceeding 1,000 square meters per gram, providing abundant adsorption sites for organic contaminants. Contaminated water flows through GAC beds typically 3-10 feet deep at contact times 5-20 minutes, with PFAS molecules accumulating on carbon surfaces. GAC demonstrates excellent removal efficiency (>90%) for long-chain PFAS including PFOA and PFOS. However, short-chain PFAS exhibit reduced adsorption affinity, with removal efficiencies potentially below 50%.

Ion Exchange technology utilizing strong-base anion exchange resins demonstrates superior performance for broad PFAS removal including short-chain compounds problematic for GAC. IX resins consist of polymeric matrices with positively-charged functional groups that electrostatically attract and bind negatively-charged PFAS molecules. IX achieves >95% removal efficiency for PFAS regardless of chain length when properly designed and operated. PFAS-selective resins incorporating proprietary functional groups enhance PFAS affinity relative to competing anions, extending operational life and improving economics.

Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration membrane technologies provide highly effective PFAS removal through size exclusion and electrostatic repulsion mechanisms. Studies demonstrate >90% rejection for all PFAS compounds by RO membranes, with NF achieving >90% rejection for most PFAS^[4]. Critical advantage of membrane technology includes consistent performance independent of PFAS chain length. However, RO/NF generates concentrated reject stream containing PFAS at 4-6 times feed water concentrations, requiring proper disposal.

PFAS Contamination in Indonesia

Indonesia faces significant PFAS contamination challenges despite limited environmental monitoring and nascent regulatory frameworks. Research conducted by Nexus3 Foundation and the International Pollutant Elimination Network (IPEN) reveals widespread PFAS presence in consumer products, food packaging, textiles, and environmental media^[3]. A 2023 study tested 48 consumer products purchased in Indonesia between 2019-2022 from Jakarta, West Java, East Java, and Banten provinces. Results demonstrated 93.75% of samples (45 of 48 products) contained detectable PFAS, with 62% exceeding proposed European Union safety limits. Alarmingly, 100% of microwave popcorn bags tested positive for PFAS contamination.

Human biomonitoring evidence documents PFAS exposure among Indonesian populations. A 2008 study analyzed breast milk samples from 20 women in Jakarta and Purwakarta, detecting PFOS in 100% of samples and PFHxS in 45%^[3]. Average PFOS concentration reached 84 parts per trillion (ppt), exceeding by 4-fold the combined drinking water health advisory of 20 ppt for multiple PFAS established by Vermont (USA). Individual samples showed PFOS levels up to 12 times higher than this health advisory, indicating substantial exposure among some individuals.

Environmental contamination extends to aquatic sediments and potential drinking water sources. A 2012 study detected PFOS and PFOA in sediment samples from Jakarta Bay. While comprehensive PFAS monitoring data for Indonesian drinking water sources does not exist publicly, this represents a critical knowledge gap hindering exposure assessment and risk management. Jakarta's water supply depends primarily on the Jatiluhur Dam on the Citarum River, with additional supply from groundwater extraction.

Global PFAS Regulations and Drinking Water Standards

International regulatory frameworks for PFAS vary substantially by jurisdiction. The United States established drinking water standards through EPA's April 2024 National Primary Drinking Water Regulation, setting Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) at 4 parts per trillion (ppt) for PFOA and PFOS, and 10 ppt for PFHxS, PFNA, and GenX chemicals. However, in May 2025, EPA announced intent to extend PFOA and PFOS MCL compliance deadlines to 2031 and reconsider standards for four PFAS, following litigation by water utility associations and chemical industry groups.

European Union pursues comprehensive PFAS restrictions through multiple regulatory mechanisms. The European Chemicals Agency is evaluating a proposal to restrict all PFAS as a class encompassing over 10,000 substances under the REACH regulation. This unprecedented restriction would phase out PFAS in most applications over 5-12 year transition periods, with limited exemptions for essential uses. EU drinking water directive establishes standards of 100 nanograms per liter for sum of 20 PFAS compounds and 500 ng/L for total PFAS.

Australia proposed drinking water guidelines in October 2024 setting PFOS at 4 ng/L (matching US EPA) and PFOA at 200 ng/L (50 times higher than US EPA). Canada has federal guidelines of 600 ng/L for PFOS and 200 ng/L for PFOA. Several US states have established standards more stringent than federal levels, including Vermont (20 ppt combined for 5 PFAS), Michigan (8 ppt PFOA, 16 ppt PFOS), and New Jersey (13 ppt for PFOA, PFOS, and PFNA).

Recommendations for Indonesia

Addressing PFAS contamination in Indonesia requires coordinated multi-stakeholder approach encompassing regulatory development, monitoring infrastructure, treatment implementation, public awareness, and pollution prevention. Immediate priorities include establishing drinking water standards aligned with international best practices, implementing systematic environmental monitoring programs, building analytical laboratory capacity, and developing regulatory frameworks for PFAS in consumer products and industrial applications.

Drinking water monitoring should commence immediately using phased approach prioritizing high-risk systems and populations. Phase 1 would screen water supplies serving >100,000 people including Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, and other major cities for 6-10 priority PFAS. Phase 2 would expand to medium-sized utilities serving 10,000-100,000 people focusing on areas with potential contamination sources (airports with AFFF use, industrial zones, landfills near water supplies). Phase 3 would establish routine monitoring at all public water systems serving >3,300 people.

Laboratory infrastructure requires substantial investment to support PFAS monitoring programs. Currently, limited Indonesian laboratories possess liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) instruments and technical expertise for ultra-trace PFAS analysis at parts-per-trillion concentrations. Priority actions include acquiring LC-MS/MS systems (capital cost USD 300,000-500,000 per instrument = IDR 5-8.3 billion), training analytical chemists in PFAS methods, and establishing quality assurance protocols.

Frequently Asked Questions